Biography of Isaac Newton, Mathematician and Scientist

Sir Isaac Newton (Jan. 4, 1643–March 31, 1727) was a superstar of physics, math, and astronomy even in his own time. He occupied the chair of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge in England, the same role later filled, centuries later, by Stephen Hawking. Newton conceived of several laws of motion, influential mathematical principals which, to this day, scientists use to explain how the universe works. Fast Facts: Sir Isaac Newton Known For: Developed laws that explain how the universe worksBorn: Jan. 4, 1643 in Lincolnshire, EnglandParents: Isaac Newton, Hannah AyscoughDied: March 20, 1727 in Middlesex, EnglandEducation: Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1665)Published Works: De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas (1669, published 1711), Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), Opticks (1704)Awards and Honors: Fellowship of the Royal Society  (1672), Knight Bachelor (1705)Notable Quote: If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants. Early Years and Influences Newton was born in 1642 in a manor house in Lincolnshire, England. His father had died two months before his birth. When Newton was 3 his mother remarried and he remained with his grandmother. He was not interested in the family farm, so he was sent to Cambridge University to study. Newton was born just a short time after the death of  Galileo, one of the greatest scientists of all time. Galileo had proved that the planets revolve around the sun, not the earth as people thought at the time. Newton was very interested in the discoveries of Galileo and others. Newton thought the universe worked like a machine and that a few simple laws governed it. Like Galileo, he realized that mathematics was the way to explain and prove those laws. Laws of Motion Newton formulated laws of motion and gravitation. These laws are math formulas that explain how objects move when a force acts on them. Newton published his most famous book, Principia, in 1687 while he was a mathematics professor at Trinity College in Cambridge. In Principia, Newton explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He also described his theory of gravity, the force that causes things to fall down. Newton then used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval, not round. The three laws are often called Newton’s Laws. The first law states that an object that is not being pushed or pulled by some force will stay still or will keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed. For example, if someone is riding a bike and jumps off before the bike is stopped, what happens? The bike continues on until it falls over. The tendency of an object to remain still or keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed is called inertia. The second law explains how a force acts on an object. An object accelerates in the direction the force is moving it. If someone gets on a bike and pushes the pedals forward, the bike will begin to move. If someone gives the bike a push from behind, the bike will speed up. If the rider pushes back on the pedals, the bike will slow down. If the rider turns the handlebars, the bike will change direction. The third law states that if an object is pushed or pulled, it will push or pull equally in the opposite direction. If someone lifts a heavy box, they use force to push it up. The box is heavy because it is producing an equal force downward on the lifter’s arms. The weight is transferred through the lifter’s legs to the floor. The floor also presses upward with an equal force. If the floor pushed back with less force, the person lifting the box would fall through the floor. If it pushed back with more force, the lifter would fly up in the air. Importance of Gravity When most people think of Newton, they think of him sitting under an apple tree observing an apple fall to the ground. When he saw the apple fall, Newton began to think about a specific kind of motion called gravity. Newton understood that gravity was a force of attraction between two objects. He also understood that an object with more matter or mass exerted the greater force or pulled smaller objects toward it. That meant that the large mass of the Earth pulled objects toward it. That is why the apple fell down instead of up and why people don’t float in the air. He also thought that maybe gravity was not just limited to the Earth and the objects on the earth. What if gravity extended to the Moon and beyond? Newton calculated the force needed to keep the Moon moving around the earth. Then he compared it with the force that made the apple fall downward. After allowing for the fact that the Moon is much farther from the Earth and has a much greater mass, he discovered that the forces were the same and that the Moon is also held in orbit around Earth by the pull of earth’s gravity. Disputes in Later Years and Death Newton moved to London in 1696 to accept the position of warden of the Royal Mint. For many years afterward, he argued with Robert Hooke over who had actually discovered the connection between elliptical orbits and the inverse square law, a dispute that ended only with Hookes death in 1703. In 1705, Queen Anne bestowed a knighthood upon Newton, and thereafter he was known as Sir Isaac Newton. He continued his work, particularly in mathematics. This led to another dispute in 1709, this time with German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz. They both quarreled over which of them had invented calculus. One reason for Newtons disputes with other scientists was his overwhelming fear of criticism, which led him to write, but then postpone publication of, his brilliant articles until after another scientist created similar work. Besides his earlier writings, De  Analysi (which didnt see publication until 1711) and Principia (published in 1687), Newtons publications included Optics (published in 1704), The Universal Arithmetic (published in 1707), the Lectiones Opticae (published in 1729), the Method of Fluxions (published in 1736), and the Geometrica Analytica (printed in 1779). On March 20, 1727, Newton died near London. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, the first scientist to receive this honor.   Legacy Newton’s calculations changed the way people understood the universe. Prior to Newton, no one had been able to explain why the planets stayed in their orbits. What held them in place? People had thought that the planets were held in place by an invisible shield. Newton proved that they were held in place by the sun’s gravity and that the force of gravity was affected by distance and mass. While he was not the first person to understand that the orbit of a planet was elongated like an oval, he was the first to explain how it worked. Sources â€Å"Isaac Newtons Life.†Ã‚  Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences.â€Å"Isaac Newton Quotes.†Ã‚  BrainyQuote, Xplore.â€Å"Sir Isaac Newton.†Ã‚  StarChild, NASA.

Analysis Of The Book The Odyssey - 1720 Words

The Odyssey Books 1-4 Arà ªte: †¢ Book 1 o Aigà ­sthos lacks arà ªte-â€Å"stole Agamemnon’s wife and killed the soldier on his homecoming day† (53-54) even after Hermes warned him no to o Telà ©makhos shows arà ªte by giving Mentà ªs food gifts before asking his identity- â€Å"irked with himself to think a visitor had been kept their waiting† (150-151) †¢ Book 2 o Penelope shows arà ªte with wit and trickery-â€Å"so every day she wove on the great loom†¦every night by torchlight she unwove it; and so for three years she deceived the Akhaians† (112-114)- delays choosing a suitor, loyal to Odysseus o Lack of arà ªte for the suitors-â€Å"My house is being plundered: is this courtesy?†(68) †¢ Book 3 o Nestor recounts Odysseus’s arà ªte and skill o Nestor hopes Telà ©makhos will get revenge with the suitors as Orestes did when he demonstrated arà ªte and â€Å"killed the snake who killed his father† (334) †¢ Book 4 o Menelà ¡os Helen tell stories of the arà ªte Odysseus showed the Trojan Horse Characters: †¢ Gods: Zeus(â€Å"summoner of cloud†, â€Å"Father of us all†), Athena(â€Å"the grey-eyed goddess†, known for her wisdom, supports Odysseus) †¢ Mortals: Telà ©makhos(Odysseus’s son, â€Å"clear-headed†), Penà ©lopà ª(Odysseus’s faithful wife, â€Å"Penà ©lopà ª the wise†), Eurà ½makhos, Antà ­noà ¶s other suitors, Mentà ªs(Athena in disguise, revealed in Book 4), Eurà ½kleia(faithful/devoted nurse), Nestor(king of Pylos), Pisistratus (Nestor’s son), Menelà ¡os Helen(king, queen of Sparta) Aspects of Greek culture: †¢ Role of Women/Way of Governing: o Telà ©makhosShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Book The Odyssey 984 Words   |  4 PagesOdysseus and Penelope, is one of the main character of Homer’s poem The Odyssey. 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Homer authored both The Iliad and The Odyssey. The Iliad is the story of the Trojan war, while The Odyssey is about Odysseus’ ten year adventure home from the war. â€Å"The story of the Trojan War, the Bronze Age conflict between the kingdoms of Troy and Mycenaean Greece, straddles the history and mythology of ancient GreeceRead More Elements of Homers Odyssey in the Coen Brothers Oh Brother Where Art Thou646 Words   |  3 Pagesadventure The Odyssey, is a film amusingly filled with themes of symbolism similar to those found in Homer’s epic, while still maintaining a sense of originality and style that they have become so renowned for. An exciting and entertaining blend of high adventure, humour, and heartfelt emotion, at first glance, the film barely resembles Homer’s poem: only certain elements are obvious, such as the main character’s name and the three sirens by the river. However, a deeper and more intense analysis of the

Music History Jazz

Question: Discuss about the Music History for Jazz. Answer: Introduction Jazz is conceptualized as highly rhythmic and syncopated kind of music which has its roots in New Orleans. Scholars agree that Jazz music emerged in New Orleans, Louisiana at the dawn of 20th century (Anderson, 2007). Jazz development was significantly influenced by both African and European music traditions. From African music traditions jazz borrowed "feel" and rhythm, "blue" quality and the custom of playing the instrument in customized manner thus acting as an extension of the human voice. Similarly, from the European music tradition, jazz inherited the use of instrument because the majority of the instruments such as trumpet, saxophone, and piano were from Europe (Scaruffi, 2007). Besides, jazz got harmony no wonder jazz harmony is similar to European classic music. The purpose of this research, therefore, is to discuss the forces that came together to jazz in the late 1950s and how they created a backlash in the early 1960s against a jazz mainstream that had lost its authentici ty and creative momentum. Background Historically speaking jazz was born in the midst of a conflict between the white rich and the poor blacks. The conflict of values between the two boiled out to streets and fields and the most authentic way to express this was through music. It is, therefore, prudent to say jazz was born as a defiant music of the segregated poor black people. The term jazz had its origin in the New Orleans whorehouses and got its first usage in 1917 (Krekola Mikkonen, 2011). Initially, jazz was developed as dance music, but it later evolved to listening music in the 1940s. Additionally, it was conceived as an oral music, hence for a long time it remained unwritten. Due to cultural diversity in New Orleans jazz is characterized by various styles which include Jazz-rock, Dixie Jazz/New Orleans Jazz, Cool Jazz, Swing, Free Jazz, and B-Bop. All these jazz styles are featured by improvisation, syncopated rhythmic patterns, and strong performance techniques making jazz a unique music style. As a unique mus ical genre jazz was popularly accepted in Australia, Britain, and America from the 1800s to late 1940s. In the 1950s jazz as a genre had lost its popularity probably due to the fact that it has evolved to be too cognitive for an average listener (Hazell, 2014). For music to remain vibrant, it must be easy to dance or to sing it. The forces that came together in the 1950s, however, sought to recapture jazz enthusiasm. Forces That Came Together in the Late 1950s and How They Created Jazz Backlash in early 1960s Music industry encountered significant technological advancement in the 1950s. Advanced recording techniques allowed recording engineers and musician to formulate amazing soundscapes. Concerts and radio shows were replaced by recordings thus becoming the main medium by which people interacted with music (Anderson, 2007). At this period jazz art world experienced amalgamations of forces like social, political and cultural upheaval, independence of artists, and technological advancement. The combination of these forces resulted to the renaissance of jazz art world. This renaissance was featured by massive production, stylistic novelty, and bulging audiences, consequently, gaining the attention of both broadcast and print media. Besides, this period marked the dawn of the modern American jazz. This time was featured by a massive recording of jazz music, thanks to technological advancement. This extensive recording can be attributed to works of Van Gelder who was fundamentally a jazz spe cialist (Feather, 2017). Technological Advancement Music industry experience transformation in the 1950s, one of the significant technological developments that revolutionized the music industry was improved Thomas Edison's phonograph (Gioia, 2011). The magnetic phonographs allowed artists to record only what they liked. The tremendous advancement called for new jazz artistic creativity. Another technological advancement which metamorphosed how jazz music was traditionally made was the emergence of colored television. Prior to this advancement, the spread of music relied on radio, live performances, and records. That meant for one to listen to music it was either on a off record, radio or a live performance. These said mediums were not the best for a music listener. They pushed the audience far from the music performer, either because the listener could not see the artist or he/she was seated very far from the performer. Television got wide acceptance in the 1950s because they were accessible and affordable (Perchard, 2017). As a res ult jazz artist had to innovate a new way to thrive in the media culture as opposed to live performances. The presence of the broadcast media made jazz artist to incorporate dancing into their music as opposed to classical jazz music. Political, Social, and Cultural Forces The political, social, and cultural forces were instrumental in this renaissance. The government approved the use of jazz musicians as American cultural ambassadors. This move, therefore, led to modern jazz aesthetics which was characterized by musical improvement in jazz performance and innovative stylistic directions. Similarly, cultural forces at this time created a radicalized community of black jazz artists, who were race conscious. As a result, they passionately challenged the direction jazz music was taking both ideologically and musically (Giddins DeVeaux, 2009). Equally, society was becoming intensely capitalistic thus jazz artists were working independently either as writers, producers, and artists. This element hence hindered any of the styles from dominating. Without any seat of authority, jazz music maintained diversity thus developing innovatively. In addition, the economic boom of this period motivated jazz movement from its comfort zones in the urban clubs to new fro ntiers like education centers, art museums, outdoor facilities, and concert halls. Furthermore, the economic status of the time also encouraged jazz artists to move outside the United States borders. Hence, jazz established itself as an international brand, consequently leading to remarkable writing on jazz. The written literature transformed the jazz art world significantly (Montiel, 2016). Moreover, government promotion of jazz as a symbol of the American culture and the American art form solidified music ideologies, thus, encouraging more innovation to create wide reception of the jazz music home and abroad. In the late 1950s and early 1960s American and world social setting was undergoing transformation led by civil right movements. There was a political wave of demanding freedom in every aspect of life, and as a result, free jazz was born. Consequently, many scholars see the emergence of free jazz a reaction of the segregated black people rather than just a mere rejection of particular music ideas and credos. Civil movement hence contributed to the recognition of black jazz artists. Therefore, this period is marked by growing social mobility of the black jazz artists. New opportunities were reserved for black jazz artists by both recording and radio industry (Epperson, 2013). Similarly, famous bland bands got sponsorships and were promoted due to increasing demand of jazz music internationally as well as among the whites. In addition, jazz art encouraged integration between blacks and whites in the music industry. Though the reality of discrimination was still alive in this era, both b lacks and whites were equals in the jazz community. Jazz art not only integrated the American divergent cultures and people but also brought people together globally. Within this period jazz music was greatly influenced by ideas from third world countries like India, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. Free jazz, therefore, encouraged artistic innovation among the black and white artists hence reviving jazz authenticity and creative momentum. Intellectual Force After the World War II jazz music penetrated the American education system hence it was adopted in high school, universities, and colleges music programs. This appreciation led to the formation of International Association for Jazz Education. The association promoted jazz training in schools and recognition of jazz art as a legitimate and economically viable form of art which could be studied as a career. As a result, jazz festivals were organized both within the United States and internationally (Anderson, 2007). Overseas festivals in places like Italy, Switzerland, and Netherlands resulted in being more successful to extent of breaking attendance records in similar events in the U.S. Penetration of jazz art in the educational centers had two main repercussions for jazz music. First was the creation of new audience. This audience was unique in that it was different in race-ethnic background, class background and conventional sensibility than the former audience in the night urban cl ubs (Tschmuck, 2012). This new audience thus demanded a new jazz aesthetic which called for creativity and authenticity. Secondly, recruitment of jazz artist in the 1960s was dependent on individual exposure to performing in the educational institutions. The presence of jazz art in the educational centers thus encouraged innovation and authenticity. The creativity of this period resulted different styles of jazz, bop jazz was popular amongst them. It played as a cool jazz, the creativity that featured this style entailed of quick, unusual harmonies. Many individual artists also emerged as a result of these forces. The 1950s era revealed different composers some who could not be categorized either as cool or hard jazz creators; however, their creativity made them to be admired (Shipton, 2007). Some of them like George Russell, Nichols, and Lewis wrote colorful, intricate and bright music for their bands. The same forces led to the revival of Chicago jazz center in 1965. The center acted as a jazz music learning center for the youths. The center was very critical in shaping future jazz musicians with the United States and internationally. The jazz enthusiasm of the 1950s led to new musical heritage, which created new kind of jazz art through emphases of authenticity and creativity. The creativity which characterized jazz in this era witnessed incorporation of styles from other music genres like blues, gospel hymns, and ragtime. However, these borrowed styles were applied in jazz in a unique manner that demonstrated a high level of inventiveness. Such ingenuity formed a different genre of jazz that attracted people from different social status, age, and race (Berry, Foose Jones, 2009). Hence, jazz art experienced a revival. Besides, this new form of jazz was thought to be unique since it encouraged the expression of individuality and creativity through the use of solos. Some artist captivated the audience by use of inflection. Such forms of uniqueness and creativity marked the backlash of jazz in the 1960s. Conclusion In conclusion, it's clear from the research that jazz music was a creation of social, political, and cultural factors. It is also explicit that jazz music significantly developed as an American Art form and as such it acted as a cultural, social, and political unity of the Americans. On the other hand, full acceptance of television as a form of entertainment in the 1950s offered a new platform for jazz musicians thus calling for more creativity. Government departments in the United States also utilized jazz music and musicians to propagate American culture internationally. In addition, jazz was used to depict America as a unified country especially during the rise of civil movement and cold war period (Gioia, 2011). Economic forces are illustrated as vital in making a music industry recognized and economically viable. The role of educational institutes in transforming a concept cannot also be ignored. This is demonstrated by the fact that interaction of jazz with academicians saw inn ovation and authenticity. It is, therefore, prudent to conclude that jazz stylistic innovation, authenticity, and creative momentum of the 1960s was propelled by the establishment of a new audience, the rapid expansion of production, the presence of broadcast media, government approval, economic factors, and socio-cultural factors. References Anderson, I. (2007). This is our music: Free jazz, the sixties, and American culture. University of Pennsylvania Press. Berry, J., Foose, J., Jones, T. (2009). Up from the cradle of jazz: New Orleans music since World War II. University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Epperson, B. D. (2013). More Important Than the Music: A History of Jazz Discography. University of Chicago Press. Feather, L. (2017). The Book of Jazz-A Guide to the Entire Field. Edizioni Savine. Giddins, G., DeVeaux, S. K. (2009). Jazz. WW Norton Company Incorporated. Gioia, T. (2011). The history of jazz. Oxford University Press. Hazell, N. J. (2014). Jazz Writers and Critics: The Role of Critical Voices in the Life of Jazz. Krekola, J., Mikkonen, S. (2011). Backlash of the Free World: the US presence at the World Youth Festival in Helsinki, 1962. Scandinavian Journal of History, 36(2), 230-255. Montiel, M. K. (2016). Popular Music Genres. A Companion to Popular Culture, 38,123. Perchard, T. (2017). Mid-century Modern Jazz: Music and Design in the Postwar Home. Popular Music, 36(1), 55-74. Scaruffi, P. (2007). A history of jazz music. Shipton, A. (2007). A new history of jazz. Continuum International Publishing Group. Tschmuck, P. (2012). Creativity and innovation in the music industry. In Creativity and in the Music Industry (pp. 225-251). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Littorina spp. Essays - Littorinidae, Common Periwinkle,

Littorina spp. Also known as "the Common Periwinkle" The Littorina sp p . is a small marine snail or gastropod , that is widely distributed th roughout parts of N orthern Europe and North America; where they are most commonly found along rocky shores in the intertidal zon e. Although Littorina spp. is most common in tide-pools and rocky substrate s but it can also be found in muddy or sandy substrates. (Encyclopedia Britannica "periwinkle" ). Salinity is an environmental factor that remains relatively constant in open water but at the intertidal zone it varies considerably. Salinit y levels climb due to fresh water evaporating when the intertidal zone is exposed but can also decrease when there is a n influx of fresh water that dilutes the salinity levels. Salinity levels in the ocean can vary between 30-35 ppt whereas the intertidal zone can have salinity levels between 5ppt and 40ppt depending on environmental influences. (Cohen, A 2011, Littorina littorea ) The Littorina spp. is considered a euryhali ne species, meaning it is able has developed multiple behavioral and physical adaptations that allows it to withstand a wide range of salinity. The periwinkle cannot control the salt content of their body (meaning it is an osmoconformer). This means that the salinity in their tissues fluctuates with that of the water. ( Hoyaux , J., Gilles, R. and Jeuniaux , C., 1976). When the salinity of the water is outside their range of tolerance (down to 13 ppt ) action must be taken. (Cohen, A 2011, Littorina littorea ). When the periwinkle's chemoreceptors detect an unfavorable salinity t he snail must somehow escape unfavorable conditions so that the salinity in their bodies does not exceed or deceed * 1 their range of tolerance. Since the periwinkle is a non-sessile organism it will try to reduce the effects of changing salinity by avoiding the stress and moving into a more suitable micro-habitat. Another behavioral response that the Littorina spp. possesses is their "shell closing mechanism" which allows the periwinkle to remain sealed off from the source of stress (in this case salinity) creating a hyperosmotic state *2 allowing the Littorina spp. to survive in an environment that is outside their range of tolerance; a lthough this renders them incapable of movement. ( Berger, V.J. and Kharazova , A.D., 1997 ) . Our group has decided to create an experiment to measure "How salinity affects the movement of the Littorina spp. ?" . I predict that there will be conclusive evidence that shows that when exposed to a salinity outside their range of tolerance (in this case 10 ppt ), the Littorina spp. 's movement will decrease if not cease all together compared to when they are in a salinity of tolerable levels (30ppt). I have formed this hypothesis due to the following concepts. In their natural environment the periwinkles chemoreceptors would be able to detect the gradual change in salinity which would allow them time to move out of that area of (impending) stress and into a different micro-environment. In our experiment though , t he Littorina spp. is being introduced to an environment with a salinity outside their range of tolerance abruptly, and will almost immediately initiate the "shell closing mechanism" to separate their bodies from the harmful or unfavorable external environment. (Berger, V.J. and Kharazova , A.D., 1997) . Because of this we will note that there is an overall decrease of movement because the predicted behavioral r esponse would inhibit movement resulting in a decreased amount of movement in lower salinity solution as predicted. * 1 : there is no established opposite to the word exceed in the English language, and it's quite often suggested that it is a gap in the language that needs to be filled. Deceed has come up as a possible candidate but hasn't been approved or instated. For the purposes of this paper, I have used the word deceed as an antonym to the word exceed. *2 : A cell that contains a higher number of solutes than its surroundings Citations Berger, V.J. and Kharazova , A.D., 1997. Mechanisms of salinity adaptations in marine molluscs . InInteractions and Adaptation Strategies of Marine Organisms(pp. 115-126). Springer Netherlands.